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BURSERACEAE(Frankincense family)
• Medicinal / Folk-medicinal aspects: • Members of this family of 500 species of trees and shrubs in 16 genera are to be found in tropical regions. The majority of species yield fragrant oleo-gum-resins following damage to the bark, many of which have been used medicinally, but which are now used principally in incense manufacture and perfumery. Boswellia Roxb. ex Colebr. species yield frankincense; Bursera Jacq. ex L. and Canarium L. species yield elemi; Commiphora Jacq. species yield myrrh, bdellium, and other resins; Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) Marchand yields Brazilian elemi. The genus Amyris P.Browne has enjoyed a confused taxonomic history, having been classified in both the Burseraceae and in the family Rutaceae. It is now considered to belong to the latter family (Willis 1973), but certain species have been transfered to the genus Commiphora Jacq., which belongs to the Burseraceae. Thus, Yucatan elemi derived from Amyris plumieri DC. is a product of the family Rutaceae, whilst balm of Mecca is derived from Amyris opobalsamum L., now considered to be a synonym of Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C.Chr., fam. Burseraceae. The timber from one or two species is also of commercial value. The timber is exported from West Africa, and is used in the manufacture of plywood, blockboard, packing cases, and other such items (Hausen 1981). A few cases of skin irritation in woodworkers have been reported (Spitzer 1927, Subiza 1958, Hartmann & Schlegel 1980). Woods & Calnan (1976) reported a case of a joiner with dermatitis on the eyelids, backs of the hands, and forearms who reacted to patch tests with gaboon and with deal (possibly Pinus sylvestris L. or Picea abies (L.) H.Karst., fam. Pinaceae). The wood dust can also produce conjunctivitis, nasal irritation, and respiratory symptoms (Subiza 1958, Gronomeyer & Fuchs 1967). Aucoumea Klaineana Resin Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). Frankincense, an aromatic resin, is derived from this and some other species of Boswellia Roxb. ex Colebr. (Thulin & Warfa 1987). See also Boswellia sacra Flück. below. Boswellia Frereana Resin and Boswellia Frereana Resin Oil [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients, the former purported to have skin conditioning properties, the latter used for fragrancing (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Boswellia Neglecta Resin Oil [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient used for fragrancing, and purported to have skin conditioning / emollient properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Boswellia Papyrifera Resin Oil [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient used for fragrancing, and purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Frankincense, an aromatic resin otherwise known as gum olibanum, is derived from this and some other species of Boswellia Roxb. ex Colebr. – see above (Thulin & Warfa 1987). As well as the variation in chemistry of the frankincense derived from different species, there is also chemovariation in the frankincense derived from different trees of the same species. Pappas (2016)a has identified five main chemotypes of frankincense derived from the main botanical species that produce frankincense, encompasing an α-thujene type, three α-pinene types, an octyl acetate type, a limonene type, and methoxydecane types. Further, confusion may arise from the use of the term common frankincense, which is used to describe turpentine, an oleoresin from Pinus L. species (fam. Pinaceae) from which turpentine oil is produced (Todd 1967). Both frankincense and turpentine have certain volatile oil constituents in common. These include pinene and dipentene (limonene). The use of olibanum in adhesive plasters (Greenberg & Lester 1954) and in perfumes (Schwartz et al. 1957) has caused dermatitis in sensitive individuals. Sixteen patients contact sensitive to balsam of Peru (from Myroxylon balsamum Harms, fam. Leguminosae) showed negative patch test reactions to olibanum (Hjorth 1961). Olibanum gum applied to intact or abraded rabbit skin for 24 hours under occlusion was found to be moderately irritating. Closed patch tests with 8% olibanum in petrolatum was found to be non-irritant to human skin. A maximisation test using 8% olibanum in petrolatum was found to be non-sensitising in 25 volunteers (Opdyke 1978a). The fragrance raw material olibanum absolute, which is prepared by ethanol extraction of olibanum gum followed by evaporation of the ethanol, was found to be non-irritant, non-sensitising, and non-phototoxic in various tests on mice, swine, and human subjects (Opdyke 1978b). The frankincense tree and its oleoresin is the source of a number of recognised cosmetic product ingredients [of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)] the botanical sources of which being ascribed to Boswellia carteri or to Boswellia sacra. The INCI names of these ingredients are listed below. In addition to any perfuming / fragrancing properties, these ingredients are purported variously to have emollient, exfoliating, hair conditioning, nail conditioning, skin conditioning, skin protecting, smoothing, and/or tonic activity (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Boswellia Serrata Extract, Boswellia Serrata Gum, Boswellia Serrata Gum Extract, Boswellia Serrata Leaf Cell Extract, Boswellia Serrata Oil, Boswellia Serrata Resin Extract, and Boswellia Serrata Water [INCI; CAS RN 97952-72-2; all of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients used variously for fragrancing / perfuming and/or for their purported film-forming, hair conditioning, nail conditioning, skin conditioning, skin protecting, smoothing, or tonic properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Bursera Bipinnata Resin Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient used for its fragrancing / perfuming properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Bursera Fagaroides Wood Oil [INCI; CAS RN 8006-86-8 / 92874-96-9 / 977051-12-9; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient used for fragrancing / perfuming (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). This cosmetic product ingredient is the fragrance raw material known variously as linaloe oil, linaloe wood oil, Bursera oil, Bursera aloexylon oil, Bursera delpechiana wood oil, Bursera penicillata wood oil, Elaphrium penicillatum wood oil, elemi gum wood oil, Indian lavender wood oil, and Mexican linaloe oil. See also Bursera penicillata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Engl. below. This species is a source of the fragrance raw material known variously as linaloe oil, linaloe wood oil, and Mexican linaloe oil (Peters et al. 2003). See also Bursera linanoe (La Llave) Rzed., Calderón & Medina below. Bursera Graveolens Fruit Oil, Bursera Graveolens Wood Oil, and Bursera Graveolens Wood Water [INCI; all of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients purported variously to have antiperspirant, flavouring, fragrancing, perfuming, hair conditioning, and skin conditioning activity (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
This and some closely related species yield the fragrance raw material known as linaloe oil, oil of linaloe Mexican, linaloe berry oil, or linaloe wood oil. It is prepared by steam distillation of the wood or the berries. Whilst a botanical source and plant part will typically be declared on commercial products containing these oils, it should be recognised that the taxonomy of the closely related species that provide these oils has been muddled. The situation is further complicated by the fact that these species appear to hybridize quite easily (see McVaugh & Rzedowski 1965, Peters et al. 2003). So, the declared botanical origin should be regarded as tentative in the absence of formal botanical authentication at source. Perfumes, colognes, and toilet waters containing oil of linaloe may produce dermatitis in hypersensitive individuals (Tulipan 1938). The sensitiser in the oil is said to be linalool (Klarmann 1958) — linalool has caused an outbreak of dermatitis among girls who were bottling perfume (Schwartz et al. 1957). Opdyke (1979) reported that oil of linaloe, when applied undiluted to the skin of mice and swine, was non-irritant and non-phototoxic. However, it was moderately irritant when applied under occlusion for 24 hours on intact or abraded rabbit skin. Oil of linaloe 8% in petrolatum was found to be non-sensitising in 25 human volunteers subjected to a maximisation test, and also non-irritant in a 48 hour closed patch test.
This species is a source of the fragrance raw material known variously as linaloe oil, linaloe wood oil, Bursera penicillata wood oil, Elaphrium penicillatum wood oil, Indian lavender wood oil, and Mexican linaloe oil.a See also Bursera linanoe (La Llave) Rzed., Calderón & Medina above.
This species furnishes the gum-resin American elemi which, when dried, is known as chibou, cachibou, or gomart resin. Bursera Simaruba Bark Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have antioxidant activity (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Hausen (1970), citing Brezina (1912/13) noted that furniture made from the wood of a "foreign poplar" known as "Kanarien-Holz" ["canary wood"] that could possibly have been the wood from Canarium commune, has produced dermatitis and itching. But he also acknowledged that the canary wood could have been derived from Liriodendron tulipifera L., fam. Magnoliaceae or from Mitragyna stipulosa (DC.) Kuntze, fam. Rubiaceae, citing this as an example of the confusion in wood naming. Referring to Liriodendron tulipifera, Schmid (undated) has more recently explained that its heartwood, which changes colour as the tree ages, is also called "poplar wood" or "Kanarien-Holz", adding that wood from young trees is white ("white poplar"), from older trees yellow ("yellow poplar"), and from very old trees blue ("blue poplar"). Canarium Commune Gum Oil and Canarium Indicum Seed Oil [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients, the former [CAS RN 97675-63-3]a having fragrancing and purportedly tonic properties, the latter purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
The oleoresinous exudate from this and certain other species of Canarium L. native to the Philippines (Canarium asperum Benth., Canarium ovatum Engl.) is known as Manila elemi, elemi resin, or canarium resin (Ella & Domingo 2010). The fragrance raw material known as elemi oil is prepared by steam distillation of Manila elemi. Elemi oil, when applied for 24 hours under occlusion to intact or abraded rabbit skin, was found to be slightly irritant. It was found to be non-irritant when applied undiluted to the skin of mice or swine, and non-irritant when applied in a 48 hour closed patch test to human skin at a dilution of 4% in petrolatum. No sensitisation reactions could be produced in 25 human volunteers subjected to a maximisation test using 4% elemi oil in petrolatum (Opdyke 1976). The oleoresin is rubefacient (Nadkarni 1976, Quisumbing 1951, Perry & Metzger 1980). Canarium Luzonicum Gum Nonvolatiles, Canarium Luzonicum Gum Extract, Canarium Luzonicum Gum Oil, and Canarium Luzonicum Leaf Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients, the first listed [CAS RN 8023-89-0]a having fragrancing and purportedly hair conditioning properties, the second and third having perfuming properties, and the fourth purportedly having humectant properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). The wood sap is reported to be poisonous when it enters a cut (Cleland 1943).
This species is a source of Manila elemi (see Canarium luzonicum (Blume) A.Gray above). Canarium Ovatum Fruit Oil and Canarium Ovatum Seed Oil [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients purported to have skin conditioning and emollient properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Canarium Pimela Leaf Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have humectant and skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
This and other species furnish some of the black dammar of commerce (Willis 1973). Sensitivity to dammar is noted under Agathis Salisb. (fam. Araucariaceae). Mabberley (2017) recorded that the genus comprises about 190 species distributed from Africa and Madagascar to Sri Lanka, one being found in South America — Commiphora leptophloeos (Mart.) J.B.Gillett, considered by some authoritiesa to be better placed taxonomically as Bursera leptophloeos Mart. In a number of species, the branches are spine-tipped (Codd 1951, van der Walt 1973), and for this reason some have been grown as barrier hedge plants (Howes 1946). The following is a representative list of spiny species:
The branches are spine-tipped (van der Walt 1973). Dharani et al. (2015) recorded that in traditional East African ethnoveterinary medicine the bark from Commiphora africana, is boiled in water, this being allowed to cool before use as a wash to treat tick infestations in goats and sheep. Commiphora Confusa Resin Oil [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient used for fragrancing, and purported to have skin conditioning and emollient properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
This plant is the source of Balm of Mecca (Genders 1972), which was a favourite beauty preparation in the Middle East. However, it could produce alarmingly violent reactions on the face, as described by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in a letter she wrote on June 17, 1717 (Wharncliffe & Thomas 1861):
Citing Bardel (1935) as the source of his information, Hausen (1970) included Mekkabalsam (Balm of Mecca) derived from Balsamodendron gilaedense [sic] in a table of woods suspected of producing allergic / toxic effects, but for which no case reports had been found. Balm of Mecca may also be called Balm (or Balsam) of Gilead (see Remington et al. 1918, Grieve 1931). This is likely to be a source of confusion because a number of other plants and plant products may be referred to as balm of Gilead. For example, the shrubby Cedronella canariensis (L.) Willd. ex Webb, fam. Labiatae) is popularly known as balm of Gilead. Also, the oleoresin from Abies balsamea (L.) Mill., fam. Pinaceae, which is usually called Canada balsam, may also be known as balm of Gilead, as may the resinous matter coating the buds of certain Populus L. species (fam. Salicaceae). Stuart (1979) asserts that the balm of Gilead of commerce is now derived from Populus balsamifera L. (syn. Populus candicans Aiton) and possibly other Populus L. species, for example Populus tremuloides Michx. Commiphora Gileadensis Branch/Fruit/Leaf Extract, Commiphora Gileadensis Bud Extract, Commiphora Gileadensis Flower Extract, Commiphora Gileadensis Oil, and Commiphora Gileadensis Sap Extract [INCI; all of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients used for their purported antimicrobial, antioxidant, astringent, emollient, skin conditioning, and/or UV filtering properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
It has been presumed by many authors that scented or perfumed myrrh (opopanax of perfumery) is obtained from Commiphora erythraea (Ehrenb.) Engl., a taxonomically complex species. Others have asserted that its source is Commiphora erythraea var. glabrescens Engl. Thulin & Claeson (1991) concluded from a critical evaluation of historical and botanical literature that its source is in fact this taxon, Commiphora guidottii, noting that the widespread association of bissabol (scented myrrh) with the names Commiphora erythraea and Commiphora erythraea var. glabrescens can be traced to an "unfortunate misidentification at Kew around 1880". This error has evidently been propagated to the cosmetic product ingredients Commiphora Erythrea [sic] Glabrescens Gum Extract (also known as opopanax) and Commiphora Erythrea [sic] Glabrescens Gum Oil (also known as opopanax oil) [INCI; CAS RN 93686-00-1 / 100084-96-6; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a used for fragrancing / perfuming (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). The name opopanax was originally applied to an oleo-gum-resin obtained from Opopanax chironium (L.) W.D.J.Koch (fam. Umbelliferae) (Remington et al. 1918), but according to Chikamai & Casadei (2005), "production today is entirely from Commiphora spp." The Mikea hunter-gatherers of Madagascar use a preparation of the bark to treat wounds (Stiles 1998).
Thulin & Claeson (1991) noted that Commiphora holtziana provides a low grade of perfumed myrrh (opopanax of perfumery). See also Commiphora guidottii Chiov. ex Guid. above. Dharani et al. (2015) recorded that in traditional East African ethnoveterinary medicine the gum resin from Commiphora erythraea mixed with camel urine is applied to the bodies of domesticated animals to treat tick and mite infestations; the crushed gum made into a paste with water is used to treat ringworm; the crushed gum mixed with the gum from Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. (fam. Leguminosae) and made into a paste with water is applied to wounds to aid healing; and a paste prepared by heating the gum in water until it boils, is allowed to cool before being applied warm to wounds caused by abscesses.
The branches are spine-tipped (Gillett 1991). According to Opdyke (1976), citing earlier literature, Commiphora abyssinica is one of the Commiphora species from which myrrh oil, otherwise known as Oil of Heerabol-Myrrh, can be obtained by steam distiilation of the gum resin. See also Commiphora myrrha (T.Nees) Engl. below. Commiphora Abyssinica Gum Oil and Commiphora Abyssinica Resin Extract [INCI; CAS RN 9000-45-7; both of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients, the former used for fragrancing / perfuming, the latter purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
The branches are spine-tipped (Gillett 1991). This species is the source of a gum-resin known as true (or medicinal) myrrh, Arabian myrrh, heerabol myrrh, herabol myrrh, Somali myrrh, or Gummi Resina Myrrha (Remington et al. 1918, Chikamai & Casadei 2005). Tincture of Myrrh was at one time included in the pharmacopoeias of several European countries where it has been used as an astringent to treat mouth ulcers (Todd 1967). In the Chinese Pharmacopoeia myrrh is known as mo yao (没药).b A fragrance raw material known as myrrh oil or oil of Heerabol-Myrrh is prepared by steam distillation of myrrh. Opdyke (1976) reports that no irritation, sensitisation, nor phototoxicity could be demonstrated with either the undiluted or diluted (8% in petrolatum) oil using a variety of tests on mice, swine and human volunteers. Myrrh absolute, prepared by ethanol extraction of myrrh followed by evaporation, and myrrh oil were also found not to have phototoxic properties (Forbes et al. 1977). Hjorth (1961) found one patient out of 13 who were sensitive to balsam of Peru (from Myroxylon balsamum Harms, fam. Leguminosae) to give a positive patch test reaction to myrrh (10% alc.). Dharani et al. (2015) recorded that in traditional East African ethnoveterinary medicine the gum resin from Commiphora myrrha heated with water until it dissolves is applied warm to tick wounds on domesticated animals. The African myrrh tree and its oleoresin is the source of a number of recognised cosmetic product ingredients [of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]. The INCI names of these ingredients are listed below. In addition to any perfuming / fragrancing properties, these ingredients are purported variously to have nail conditioning, skin conditioning, and skin protecting activity (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Commiphora Pterocarpa Leaf Cell Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have skin protecting properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). The branches are spine-tipped (van der Walt 1973). The berry is said to produce a stinging sensation in the mouth, followed after some days by swelling and burning of the lips (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
The branches are spine-tipped (van der Walt 1973). According to Opdyke (1976), citing earlier literature, Commiphora schiniperi [sic] is one of the Commiphora species from which myrrh oil, otherwise known as Oil of Heerabol-Myrrh, can be obtained by steam distiilation of the gum resin. See also Commiphora myrrha (T.Nees) Engl. above. Commiphora Schimperi Gum Extract and Commiphora Schimperi Gum Oil [INCI; CAS RN 89997-88-6; both of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients used for fragrancing / perfuming (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). Commiphora Tenuipetiolata Gum Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have anti-sebum and antimicrobial properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
The Flora of Pakistan notes that this is a thorny tree.a The oleo-gum-resin exudate, known as guggulu gum or Indian bdellium has been found to contain minor amounts of sesamin (Patil et al. 1972). Sesamin is involved in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) contact allergy. Commiphora Mukul Resin Extract, Commiphora Mukul Resin Powder, and Commiphora Wightii Resin Extract [INCI; all of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]b are recognised cosmetic product ingredients, the former two [CAS RN CAS RN 93165-11-8]b purported to have skin conditioning and tonic properties, the latter purported to have skin protecting properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). Commiphora Wildii Oil [INCI; CAS RN 1082996-27-7; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient used for fragrancing / perfuming (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). Protium Heptaphyllum Resin, Protium Heptaphyllum Resin Extract, and Protium Heptaphyllum Resin Oil [INCI; CAS RN 92704-59-1 / 2407930-05-4; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a are recognised cosmetic product ingredients used for fragrancing / perfuming (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). The soft resin from this species, when mixed with the pigment from Bixa orellana L. (fam. Bixaceae) forms an ointment that is useful as a preventative measure against skin inflammation in woodworkers caused by irritant timbers (Freise 1936). Protium Pallidum Extract [INCI; CAS RN 475291-19-1; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient used for fragrancing / perfuming (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). References
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